Protein Synthesis Essays

Protein Synthesis Essays Protein Synthesis Essay Protein Synthesis Essay In order to understand 1) protein synthesis, or the production of proteins, it is important to understand RNA and how it is transcribed from DNA. And in order to understand 2) transcription, or the process by which genetic information is copied from DNA to RNA, it is important to understand both the structure and replication of DNA, which is the source of the genetic information that tells cells which proteins to make and when to make them. A DNA molecule is made up of two long chains of nucleotides, which are the basic structural units of nucleic acids. One nucleotide consists of three parts: a sugar molecule, called 3) deoxyribose, a phosphate group, and a 4) nitrogen-containing base. The two nucleotides are covalently bonded together between the deoxyribose and phosphate molecules. A key concept to also understand is that there are four kinds of nitrogen-containing bases. This is important because they bond with each other by means of hydrogen bonds in a way that forms the 5) double helix shape of DNA and the way they pair led to suggestions of how DNA copies itself. The four kinds of nitrogen-containing bases are 6) adenine, 7) guanine, 8) cytosine, and 9) thymine. 10) Base-pairing rules are two rules that describe how these bases: they state that cytosine bonds with guanine and adenine bonds with thymine. These two pairs of bases are known as 11) complementary base pairs. Because protein synthesis requires RNA, and RNA comes from DNA, there must be enough DNA to produce RNA. The process in which DNA is copied is called 12) replication. Replication occurs when the two nucleotide chains of DNA separate by unwinding, and each chain serves as a template for a new chain. During replication, enzymes called 13) helicases separate DNA’s two chains of nucleotides at the 14) replication fork. Other enzymes, called 15) DNA polymerases, bind to the separated chains, and one at a time construct a new complementary chain of nucleotides based on the sequence of the nitrogen-containing bases. When replication is completed, there are two new exact copies of the original DNA molecule, both of which consist of one new nucleotide chain and bonded to a nucleotide chain from the original DNA. On the off chance that there is a slight change in the nucleotide sequence, which is known as a 16) mutation, a cell may have serious effects. The DNA may be damaged, and it would not produce the correct RNA, which would then cause a production of incorrect proteins, or a deficiency of proteins that are needed. However, the number of errors and mutations in DNA replication is reduced proofreading and repairing by certain enzymes. In eukaryotes, the genes directing protein production are in the nucleus, but the building blocks for enzymes and amino acids are located in the cytosol. Ribonucleic acid, or RNA, is responsible for the movement of genetic information from the DNA in the nucleus to the cytosol where protein synthesis occurs. RNA, like DNA, is composed of repeating nucleotides. However, RNA is structurally different from DNA in a few ways. Instead of the sugar molecule a molecule being deoxyribose like it is in DNA, the sugar molecule of RNA is just 17) ribose. Another difference between DNA and RNA is their nitrogen-containing bases. DNA has thymine, but RNA has 18) uracil instead of thymine. A third difference between DNA and RNA is that some forms of RNA are made up of a single nucleotide chain, whereas every DNA molecule consists of two chains of nucleotides. RNA exists in three types: 19) messenger RNA (mRNA), which carries genetic information from the DNA to the cytosol, 20) transfer RNA (tRNA), which binds to certain amino acids, and 21) ribosomal RNA (rRNA), which makes up the ribosomes where proteins are made. RNA must carry the genetic information from DNA to the cytosol through transcription. During transcription, an enzyme called 22) RNA polymerase binds to the 23) promoter of a gene. The promoter marks the beginning of the DNA chain to be transcribed. Then, a complementary copy of that gene’s DNA base sequence is made using RNA nucleotides, thus forming the mRNA. Transcription continues as the RNA polymerase continues adding complementary RNA nucleotides until it reaches the 24) termination signal, where the RNA polymerase releases both the DNA and the new RNA. The transcripts that are produced from transcription are the three types of RNA, all of which are involved in protein synthesis. In protein synthesis, the nucleotide sequence of an mRNA molecule is ranslated into a sequence of amino acids using the 25) genetic code, which correlates between a nucleotide sequence and an amino acid sequence. The genetic information needed to make proteins is encoded in a series of three mRNA nucleotides; each of which is called a 26) codon that codes for a specific amino acid. The 27) start codon and the 28) stop codons, however do not code for specific amino acids. The start codon, AUG, engages a ribosome to start translating an mRNA molecule, and the stop codons cause the ribosome to stop translating an mRNA. 9) Translation, which is the process of assembling polypeptides from information encoded in mRNA, begins when the mRNA exits the nucleus through nuclear pores and migrates to a ribosome in the cytosol. The tRNA molecule transports freely floating amino acids to the ribosomes and adds a specific amino acid to the polypeptide chain as each codon is sequentially paired with its 30) anticodon, a region of tRNA that consists of three bases complementary to the codon of mRNA. The assembly of a polypeptide starts when a ribosome attaches to AUG, the start codon on an mRNA transcript. The pairing of an anticodon with a codon causes the specified amino acid to attach to the previously translated amino acid, and therefore create a growing polypeptide chain. When the ribosome reaches a stop codon, translation is brought to an end and the mRNA is released from the ribosome and the polypeptide is complete. Protein synthesis is important because through carrying out the genetic information encoded in an organism’s DNA, the amount and kind of proteins that are produced in a cell determine the cell’s structure and function.

Biosimilar Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Biosimilar - Research Paper Example Although it is the hope that their introduction may lower the cost of such expensive medicinal products, there have been concerns over the introduction and manufacturing considerations, immunogenicity, degree of similarity of these complex drugs, and regulatory approaches to biosimilars around the world. In addition, of concern are arguments and techniques employed by pharmaceutical companies to advance or discredit biosimilars, as well as issues with post-marketing surveillance programs and their limitations. The issues associated with introduction of biosimilar medicines across a range of pharmacological indications are controversial, as well as differences between biopharmaceutical products not subjected to regulatory approval and regulatory approved medicines. There are rapid changes in licensing of biosimilars and regulatory approval. Non-transparent promotion of biosimilar products gives clinicians a need to be wary. Hopefully, widespread availability of biopharmaceutical produ cts will be provided by biosimilar medicines (Roger, 2010). ... The manufacture of a biopharmaceutical involves several isolation and purification steps, and the product is complex. In terms of safety and efficacy of the product, even minor changes in production can have serious implications, and these procedures are proprietary to the manufacturer of the originator product. Existing and future regulation should prevent inappropriate and automatic substitution of a biosimilar for a reference biopharmaceutical product, and biosimilars should not be brought to market using the same procedure applied to generics (Misra A, 2010). Living systems or organisms are used to produce biological products, medicines, and therapeutic agents. Because of their expensive cost, access to these life-saving biological products is limited. In the next few years, patents on the early biological products will soon expire. This will allow other biotech/biopharmaceutical companies to manufacture the generic versions of the biological products, which are referred to as bi osimilar medicinal products by the European Medicine Agency of the European Union, or as follow-on biological products by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Increase in patients' access to the much-needed biological pharmaceuticals by competition of cost-effective follow-on biological products with equivalent efficacy and safety can cut down the costs. Evaluation of equivalence (similarity) between the biosimilar products and their corresponding innovator product is a great challenge for both the scientific community and regulatory agencies due to the complexity and heterogeneity of the molecular structure, complicated manufacturing process, different analytical methods, and possibility of severe

Communication & Change Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Communication & Change - Essay Example At the same time, authors are quick to point out that the Web has immediately gotten intertwined with its numerous spheres of application in social, political, cultural, and other realms, which on one hand were boosted by the possibilities that communicative Internet technologies offered, and on the other hand themselves contributed to the formation of the Web as we know it today. At this point we can find in the article some interesting observations of the mentioned peculiarities of the Web. For one, we are made aware that the content of the Web actually consists of ephemeral and permanent features. The Web is ephemeral because the permanency of its content is not guaranteed, and even if the permanency is pursued the content has to be constantly recreated for this purpose. However, the Web can be thought of as permanent due to the fact that in order to be conveyed Web content must be in a permanent form, which is not the case for example with live radio and television translations.

Brand Loyalty for the Apple iPhone in the UK Market Dissertation

Brand Loyalty for the Apple iPhone in the UK Market - Dissertation Example It is a multinational company that produces consumer electronics, personal computers and business-to-business (B2B) computer software products. Incorporated in 1977, Apple has since evolved throughout the technological revolution, maintaining a significant competitive advantage in key target markets against other large technology companies such as Hewlett-Packard, IBM, Samsung, and many other successful technology-focused companies domestically and internationally. The company’s 2011 Annual Report boasts sales volumes of $10.8 billion, an increase of over $4 billion in one year (Apple 2012). This further represents growth of over six billion USD since 2009. How does Apple Inc. accomplish these sales successes and continue to maintain such high market share with its technology products in a highly dynamic, evolutionary and competitive marketplace? Throughout the recent years (2007-2012), Apple Inc. has become a profoundly adept marketing agency that understands the dynamics of consumer lifestyle and attitude, and thus produces advertising and promotional material that appeals to these values and needs. With the launch of the firm’s iPhone 1 in 2007, Apple has achieved significant brand loyalty for its innovative smartphone designs and concepts from customers that appreciate its competitive features, user-friendly design, and diverse systems and options. With each new release of the iPhone product, currently moving through its fifth evolution with the recent launch of the iPhone5, Apple continues to delight its target customers that have a strong preference for this brand.

Characteristics of Good Test Questions Essay Example for Free

Characteristics of Good Test Questions Essay Here is the list of characteristics that you should follow when either writing or selecting interpretive exercise questions for use in Stage 2 of any curriculum planning. Examples of these characteristics and why they are important will be discussed in class. Interpretive exercise questions consist of a series of selective response items based on a common set of introductory material. The introductory material may be in the form of written materials, tables, charts, graphs, maps or pictures. These questions are the hardest to write, because you have to find novel introductory material related to your unit of instruction that works and is important. The reason for including this type of question in a unit test is that it gives students practice answering this type of question which is often used on standardized tests in science. Advantages: 1. Measure the ability to interpret the introductory material encountered in everyday situations. 2. Measure more complex learning outcomes than is possible with other forms of selected response items. 3. Minimizes the influence of a students’ lack of needed factual information on measurement of complex learning outcomes. 4. Greater structure than essay test. 5. A question type used in standardized tests. Students need to be familiar with this question type. Limitations: 1. Hard to construct: find materials that are new (novel) but relevant. Usually needs some editing. 2. Heavier demand on students’ reading skill. Keep reading level low, passage brief. In primary grades use more pictorial materials. 3. Cannot measure students’ overall approach to problem solving (doesn’t show work steps). 4. Only test problem-solving ability at the recognition level. Interpretive Exercise Guidelines: 1. Select introductory material that is in harmony with course outcomes. 2. Select introductory material that is appropriate to the curricular experience and reading level of the student. 3. Select introductory material that is new (novel) to the student. 4. Use introductory material that is brief, but meaningful. 5. Revise introductory material for clarity and conciseness for greater value. 6. Construct test items that require analysis and interpretation of the introductory material. 7. Make the number of test items roughly proportional to the length of the introductory material. 8. When constructing the test items use the guidelines given in the writing of selective response items.

Lies My Teacher Told Me by James Loewen Essay -- Lies Teacher Told Loe

James Loewen wrote the book ?Lies My Teacher Told ME? to help the students of the United States become aware of their true history. This book attempts to show how and why American history has been taught the way it has without regard for the truth. Mr. Loewen had compared twelve different history textbooks they are: The Great Republic, The American Way, Land of Promise, Rise of the American Nation, Challenge of Freedom, American Adventures, Discovering American History, The American Tradition, Life and Liberty, The United States ? A History of the Republic, Triumph of the American Nation and The American Pageant. Loewen has argued his cases for Heroification, Euorcentrism and the first settlers, and Racism in our history. He has done this knowing fully that most people do not want to know the harsh realities of our nations past. The United States has tried to maintain a positive image throughout history. Unfortunately, it has many skeletons in its closet that need to come out to heal this great nation on many levels. If the public at large new the real role of racism in our nations infancy and how men tried to pursue their way of thinking as opposed to what is good for the country they would be ashamed at what the United States has stood for in the past. Heroification is a degenerative process that makes people into heroes regardless of any type of character flaw they may possess. It appears that Mr. Loewen?s greatest concern about heroification does not revolve around who gets chosen for the history books but what actually happens to them after they do. He cites two examples of people that had led colored lives but in our textbooks show them as people we should strive to become like. These two people are Helen Keller and President Woodrow Wilson. (Lies?19) Mr. Loewen feels that heroification has distorted the lives of Keller and Wilson and that we can no longer think straight about them. He does not just think this of these two but many other people throughout history. When it comes to Keller we think of someone who, throughout her entire life has struggled to overcome her disabilities. I feel that no one would dispute this but in reality Miss Keller was a radical Socialist for most of her life. This in itself is not so bad but her condemnation of the country into which she was born to and lived in could be considered treasonous. (Lies?20) President W... ...ime of the author rather then accurate historical facts. (Lies?293) Textbooks are being written this way and history is being taught this way to show people how they should act and strive to be. This relays to the student what is deemed acceptable to everyone and what is not. When it comes to a student remembering historical lessons they normally do not remember what is being taught to them unless they are moved by it. (Lies?301) So what is the result to a society where our students are being taught this way? The number one result is that students do not know the true history of their country nor do they remember what they were taught in class. This is a sad conclusion but Mr. Loewen feels it is an accurate one given responses to questions he has asked his students throughout the years. What can we do to change this and reeducate the people out there? Sadly I feel nothing can be done for those of us out there who are not truly aware of this misinformed way of teaching. But, our c hildren need not be sheltered from our true history, rather they should learn all that has happened so we can prevent the atrocities from reoccurring again. (Lies My Teacher Told Me ? James Loewen)

Hager Shipley in “The Stone Angel” Essay

In Margaret Laurence’s novel, â€Å"The Stone Angel†, Hagar Shipley is the main character. Born the daughter of Jason Currie, she is one who possesses incredible depth in character. Mingling past and present, we observe the very qualities, which sustained her and deprived her of joy such as her lack of emotional expression. As well, inheriting her father’s harsh qualities, she exhibited pride that detested weakness in any form. Despite of her negative attributes she also displayed a positive mannerism through courage. Thus, Hagar is a cold, but strong willed woman. Such qualities give us a portrait of a remarkable character. Hagar’s most noticeable characteristic was her lack of feeling and emotion. Indeed there where many situations where she could not physically express what she felt in her heart. She did not cry at the death of her son John. That night she was â€Å"transformed to stone and never wept at all (Laurence 243)†. During Marvin’s childhood, she would impatiently dismiss him due to his slowness of speech. Once when an ecstatic Marvin told Hagar that he finished his chores, Hagar bluntly sends him away saying, â€Å"I can see you’ve finished. I’ve got eyes. Get along now  ¼ (Laurence 112)†. Even as a child she was lacked emotion when she could not provide comfort to her dying brother, Daniel. Daniel needed the comfort of his mother, but for Hagar, â€Å"to play at being her – it was beyond me (Laurence 25).† Indeed, Hagar’s deficiency in feeling or expressing emotion was a visible characteristic throughout the novel. As a result of her upbringing, Hagar possesses pride that despises weakness in any form. As a young girl she displayed this trait when her dad slapped her hand, â€Å"I wouldn’t let him see me cry, I was so enraged (Laurence 9).† As previously mentioned before, Hagar could not portray her mother to comfort her dying brother. She characterized her mother as â€Å"the woman Dan was said to resemble so much and from whom he’d inherited a frailty I could not help but detest (Laurence 25).† When Hagar brought upon the subject of marriage with Bram Shipley to her father he made it clear that â€Å"there’s not a decent girl in this town would wed without her family’s consent (Laurence 49).† Hagar rebelliously responded, â€Å"It will be done by me (Laurence 49)† and eventually marries Bram. Thus, throughout the novel, Hagar’s attribute of scornful pride is evidently exhibited. In contrast to her negative character, Hagar exhibits a great deal of courage. Following Hagar’s marriage to Bram, she immediately faced the reality of the life. The next day Hagar cleaned the house inside out. â€Å"I had never scrubbed a floor in my life, but I worked that day as though I’d been driven by a whip (Laurence 52).† Hagar also had the courage to leave Bram for the sake of her children’s future. Physically, Hagar did not lack courage. At the age of 90, Hagar was able to painfully endure her journey to Shadow Point. Thus, her courageous character classifies her as a strong willed woman. There’s no question that Hagar, young or old, is a cold yet courageous woman. She was deficient in physically expressing her feelings and emotions. She also possessed an unbending pride, which despised weakness in any form. However, despite of her negative attributes she still exhibits a positive aspect through her courage. Hagar’s character has such immense depth. She may not be perfect; nevertheless she is unique. Important Note: If you’d like to save a copy of the paper on your computer, you can COPY and PASTE it into your word processor. Please, follow these steps to do that in Windows: 1. Select the text of the paper with the mouse and press Ctrl+C. 2. Open your word processor and press Ctrl+V. Company’s Liability 123HelpMe.com (the â€Å"Web Site†) is produced by the â€Å"Company†. 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